Financial Polynominal Essay

For this assignment the following in instructions are to complete and review the example of how complete the mat required for the assignment. To solve the problem 90 on page 304 of Elementary and Intermediate Algebra and to be sure that all steps of the squaring of the binominal and multiplication along with any simplification that might be used. Evaluate the polynomial resulting from step 1 using: P= $200 and R=10%, and Also with P=5670 and R= 3.5% Complete problem 70 on 311 page on Elementary and Intermediate Algebra show all steps of the division then incorporate words like foil, like terms, descending order, dividend, and divisor. Problem #1 P (1+r/2)2 P [(1+r/2)*(1+ r/2)] P [1 + r/2 +r/2 + r2 /4] P (1+ r + r2/4) Let P + $200 and R = 10% Convert 10% to a decimal which is 10/100 = .1 200* (1 + .1 + .12 /4) 200 + (200* .1) + (200 * .01/4) = 200+ 20+ .5 = 220.5 So you would make 20.5 dollars in the first year and the second year your total account balance would be $ 243.10 Problem #2 Let P = 5670 and r = 3.5 % Convert 3.5 % to a decimal 35/1000 = .035 P (1 + r +r2 /4) 5670* (1 + .035 + .03/4 52) 5670 + (5670 * .035) + (5670 * .00123/4) = 5670 + 198.45+1.74 = 5870.19 Problem #3 In this problem we follow the rules of normal division and exponents division Since the exponent in the divisor -3 xs is positive we will subtract on x from x 3 and that will become x2. So, now that we have 3Ãâ€"2 the process is the same with the entire exponent in the equation. (-9Ãâ€"33 +3Ãâ€"2- 15) / (-3x) (-9Ãâ€"3/-3x) + (3x/-3x) – (15x/-3x) 3Ãâ€"2 –x +5 This equation cannot be Foil, because it is a quadratic equation.

Nonverbal Communication: a Serious Business Advantage

Business Advantage 2 Nonverbal Communication: A Serious Business Advantage Whether it is called intuition or just good judgment, the ability to perceive and to use nonverbal cues to one’s advantage gives the business person the power and the skill to be more successful. T. S. Eliot wrote in The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock, â€Å"There will be time, there will be time / To prepare a face to meet the faces that you meet. † Perhaps he meant that those in business must be prepared in such a way as to make their face agree with the message that the consumer expects to receive.The communication experts agree that when two people have a face-to-face conversation only a small fraction of the total message they share is actually contained in the words they use. A portion of the message is contained in the tone of voice, accent, speed, volume, and inflection. However, approximately 93 percent of it is understood through nonverbal communication behaviors (Source needed). The c ombination of gestures, postures, facial expressions, and even clothing can support or interfere with the verbal messages that a person delivers.The importance of nonverbal cues in the business world has not been studied extensively, but it only makes sense that it can have a strong impact on any communication within or outside the business realm. For instance, selling is an area where the nonverbal actions can make or break a deal. People are unlikely to want to buy from a sales person who refuses to make eye contact, who has poor posture, who lacks energy, and who seems unconvinced about the products and services represented. The importance of nonverbal communication in conjunction with appropriate verbal skills can make a difference to the success of a business transaction.Therefore, this paper will Business Advantage 3 examine nonverbal communication as an important and integral component for business organizations and will determine nonverbal cues that are beneficial for succes sful business interactions. The ability to perceive and use nonverbal cues to one’s advantage gives the business person the power to be successful. Nonverbal communication includes any part of the body used by a person to send a message to another person. A person’s dress, attitude and movements are all contributions to personal business transactions.Sentence and Verbal CommunicationThese cues can help a business owner get the message across or be able to correctly interpret a message received from a customer. Often the nonverbal messages express true feelings more accurately than the actual words. A study by Fatt (1998), notes that any communication in interpersonal relationships is insufficient with just mere words (p. 1). Consequently, he states, â€Å"Nonverbal communication thus becomes the yardstick against which words and intentions are measured† (p. 1). The most common use of nonverbal communication in business has been in marketing research.It is used t o determine consumers’ attitudes towards new products. For example, executives watching a focus test group pay more attention to the nonverbal cues of the group. They are able to more closely identify the test group’s true feelings by observing their body language, facial expressions and eye contact. Facial expressions especially are particularly helpful as they can show hidden emotions that contradict their verbal statements (Remland, 1981, p. 18). Additionally, in business settings, the way one is viewed affects his transactions. Martin Remland (1981) writes that as much as 90 percent of a manager’s time is spentBusiness Advantage 4 communicating with others face-to-face (p. 2). Therefore, business people especially managers have to present themselves as a complete package that includes knowledge of their products, appropriate dress, and adequate use of nonverbal behaviors that depicts sincerity and trustworthiness. Nonverbal behavior is a major component of p ower perception in a business setting. Within a business, the main function of nonverbal communication is to facilitate relationships. Organizations have two major sectors—management and staff—who are usually at odds with each other.According to Aguinis and Henle (2001), â€Å"The effective use of power and the perceptions of one’s power by subordinates, peers and superiors are critical determinants of managerial and organizational success† (p. 537). In this study on perception of power bases, Aquinis and Henle used three specific nonverbal behaviors—eye contact, facial expression, and body posture (p. 538). They defined power as the â€Å"potential of an agent to alter a target’s behavior, intentions, attitude, beliefs, emotion, or values† (p. 538). They also used French and Raven’s power taxonomy that includes five types (p. 538).The first is reward power that means the target believes he can get â€Å"something† from the agent. Second is the coercive power where the target thinks the agent can and will punish him. The third power is legitimate power where the target must obey what the agent requests. Referent power is the need for the target to be associated with the agent. Lastly, the expert power is the target’s belief that the agent is very knowledgeable. Using these definitions of power in vignettes, Aguinis and Henle manipulated one employee’s nonverbal behavior while asking a second employee to rate the power base.Business Advantage 5 They found that direct eye contact and a relaxed facial expression increased perception of power except for coercive power. Body posture had no effect at all. There are other less sophisticated indicators that also signify status. These include behaviors and appearance cues such as clothing, age, gender, and race. In a study by Mast and Hall (2004), the accuracy of judging other people’s status based on behavioral and appearance cues was investigated. They found that only one cue was used to determine if a woman was in higher status.That was a downward head tilt. In males, the observers used both formal dress and a forward lean (p. 161). Mast and Hall also indicated that erect posture was not indicative of status in their research (p. 161). Communication experts agree that in face-to-face communication 93 percent of the message is nonverbal and only seven percent is in the actual words which is absolutely necessary to understand in a business setting. Garside and Kleiner (1991) state, â€Å"This implies that what we say is not as important as how we say it† (p. 26).Today’s businesses need employees who are not only knowledgeable in their field but who also have exceptional interpersonal skills. It is understood that most successful executives prefer verbal communication because it allows them to read body language and to hear tone of voice. Fatt (1998) believes that knowledge of nonverbal processes of communication can improve business success. According to Fatt, â€Å"†¦face-to-face communication, which is heavily weighted with nonverbal information stimulates the greatest number of senses, and provides more complete information than any other mode† (p. ). Business Advantage 6 Since knowledge of nonverbal processes can enhance business success, it is important to recognize and use appropriate nonverbal cues. The first of these is face-to-face communication which provides immediate feedback that allows the business person to modify one’s approach to meet the needs of each encounter. In a research study by Graham, Unruh, and Jennings (1991), they gathered information on the importance of nonverbal feedback to accurate assessments in business transactions.Their findings indicated that nonverbal communication was important to all surveyed and showed that most relied on facial expressions for accurate information. Their recommendations for businesses included, â₠¬Å"†¦paying more attention to nonverbal cues, engaging in more eye contact, and probing for more information when verbal and nonverbal cues are discrepant† (p. 60). One way to do so is through reinforcement behavior that demonstrates approval or disapproval. Also, response-matching is a way in which the business person uses a similar style of speech, posture, or gestures.Thirdly, accommodation is a way of adjusting to personal styles of those involved. It involves â€Å"issues of territoriality, dominance and/or submissiveness, and intimacy† (Fatt, 1998, p. 5). Professionals must use this feedback to note the body language to modify and adjust to the receiver’s behaviors. Another factor to consider is that face-to-face also allows a portion of the message to be contained in vocal elements. These include tone of voice, speed, volume and inflection (Graham et al. , p. 58). Establishing rapport is also a valuable result of face-to-face communication.Rapport is essential in building good business relations with customers and co-workers. It helps Business Advantage 7 to communicate understanding and acceptance of the other person. There are behaviors that greatly contribute to establishing a personal relationship. These include: a sincere smile, a relaxed open stance, a slight lean towards the other person, and maintained eye contact. Mirroring is a very useful technique that can send as well as receive subtle nonverbal messages. In order to mirror another person, it is necessary to match their rate of breathing, speak at the same rate of speech and in their tone of voice.It is also necessary to assume a similar posture and body language to confirm rapport and a comfortable environment. According to Fatt, â€Å"A salesperson who mirror customer’s behavior well and out of a sincere desire to communicate or to be of service usually established a strong rapport with a customer† (p. 6). A business person also utilizes information from nonverbal sources to overcome any barriers to communication with clients. Effective communication is an important aspect of management and sales positions.By decoding nonverbal behaviors, business people can increase their knowledge and understanding of what the client desires. In the first initial contact first impressions can affect both sides of the business transaction. Therefore, a a person who displays confidence has a great advantage in developing rapport and trust with business associates. One’s ability to signal trustworthiness is a significant result of knowledge of nonverbal communication. In a research study conducted by Wood (2006), the findings were that â€Å"nonverbal signals are a particularly important mode of communication between the sender and receiver† (p. 02). Wood also stated that there is an â€Å"importance of the immediate encounter between salespeople and Business Advantage 8 customers. During the first encounter, these nonverbal signa ls are sought out, perceived, and used by customers in their assessment of the trustworthiness of salespeople† (p. 202). Therefore, by using and focusing on nonverbal techniques, the business person can give signals of trustworthiness. Additionally, Wood found that for salespeople all nonverbal signals have a significant impact on the customers (p. 202).Along with confidence, the business person must have an adequate knowledge of reading nonverbal signals. For those with confidence, this type of communication is very natural and they give little thought to it. They greet customers and associates with a firm handshake that send a statement about their confidence. In addition, unflinching eye contact is a sign of frankness and interest which are both essential to sway and sell. David Morand (2001) presented research that suggested management also needed to be able to appraise emotional expressions of customers.He stated, â€Å"Sensing others’ emotional states is obviousl y a skill central to the whole notion of interpersonal communicative competency† (p. 23). He found that it was essential for â€Å"managers to have the ability to decode messages sent by others, specifically focusing on messages existing at a nonverbal emotional level† (p. 23). There are also nontraditional uses of nonverbal communication in the business setting. For instance, the business facility makes a visible statement that reflects its own perceptions. It makes a visible statement about its culture and the way business is done at that facility.One example of this is the head-quarters of Bank of America. It is a very dark, large structure that looms over all the other buildings near it. This sends a powerful message of the perceptions of their company image (Fatt, 1998, p. 2). Larson and Kleiner Business Advantage 9 (2004) claim, â€Å"A company with a strong culture and a lot of pride in itself will typically reflect that pride through its physical environmentâ⠂¬  (p. 2). Additionally, the office furnishings give more information to customers. The furniture of employees gives clues as to the status of that person in the company.If one is on the bottom of the work hierarchy, there probably would be a small, cheaply-made desk with a small chair. The next class would add arms to the chair and some other piece of furniture. Management would have larger desks, a bookshelf and a table. Finally, the top executives would have plush carpeting and a sofa in addition to what those below had (p. 2). Included in the physical aspects of a business is the office environment. Businesses that are more open with very few walls rely on constant communication. They send the message that there are few barriers to communication.They physical aspects of a business help customers to gain insight into the organization and to the people who work within it (Larson & Kleiner, p. 3). Another nontraditional use of nonverbal communication in the business setting is th rough the use of computers with growing online businesses. Online businesses are at a disadvantage without the assistance of nonverbal interactions. However, according to Timothy Bickmore (2004), there is a huge need for programs that recognize and receive nonverbal signals in order to increase sales volume (p. 9). In addition, many companies are utilizing text messaging and instant messaging for customer assistance. Qiu and Benbasat (2005) investigated advancement for programming to develop a trust relationship since this medium is void of any nonverbal signals (p. 75). They state, â€Å"With the help of emerging multimedia technologies, companies can now use computer- Business Advantage 10 generated voice and humanoid avatars to embody customer service representatives, thus enriching the interactive experiences of their customers† (p. 75).Bickmore adds, â€Å"Embodied conversational agents (ECAs) are animated humanoid computer characters that emulate face-to-face conversat ions through the use of hand gestures, facial display, head motion, gaze behavior, body posture, and speech intonation† (p. 39). However, Bickmore also states, â€Å"There is no cookbook defining all of the rules for human face-to-face interaction that human-computer interface practitioners can simply implement† (p. 44). Until ECAs are fully functioning, companies should continue with the proven face-to-face interactions to improve sales volume.Because businesses try to eliminate unnecessary travel and expenses, they are utilizing such mediums as videoconferencing. Even though videoconferencing can replace business meetings, there are disadvantages. The immediate feedback that comes with face-to-face contains cues from the facial expression, voice inflection, and gestures is often not as effective with videoconferencing. For instance, Bekkering and Shim (2006) state, â€Å"With a slow signal, it may appear to the viewer that the speaker hesitates, and hesitation in ans wering is generally considered to be a sign of dishonesty† (p. 105).Another concern is that the camera used can be manipulated to improve one’s advantage such as making one appear taller and giving more influence over the meeting. A third concern involves turn-taking cues. â€Å"In face-to-face conversations, participants alternate speaking and listening by using an intricate mechanism of verbal and nonverbal cues† (p. 105). These researchers go on to say that in videoconferencing one gives up eye contact because it is distorted by separation of screen and camera (p. 105). This infers Business Advantage 11 that perhaps the speaker is being deceptive, and, thus, there is a lack of trust.Therefore, business people will find face-to-face communication a better source of feedback as well as a better rapport builder. Ralph Waldo Emerson said, â€Å"What you do speaks so loud that I cannot hear what you say† (Inspirational Quotes). This has never been truer than in today’s business world. There is a vital link between nonverbal communication and business success. Because of this, body language and other nonverbal cues are communication tools that are too powerful to be ignored. Nonverbal communication can enhance a business person’s powers to persuade while removing any communication barriers with clients.It can improve relationships between the work hierarchies, thus changing the work atmosphere to be more productive. Additionally, it can serve in a nontraditional manner where the business facility itself makes a statement about the company image. The uses of understanding nonverbal communication in a work environment are endless. Therefore, there is still a definite need for training in this area for all employees of a business. This training would complete the business person’s package that includes required knowledge of the business represented, charisma, and employability skills.In conclusion, since effective comm unication is based on skills, and skills can be learned, then communication abilities can be improved in the business environment. It is an integral part of hearing what is said in a business transaction. Business Advantage 12 References Aguinis, H. , & Henle, C. (2001). Effects of nonverbal behavior on perceptions of a female employee’s power base. Journal of Social Psychology, 141(4), 537-549. Retrieved March 27, 2007, from EBSCOhost database (6002448). Bekkering, E. , & Shim, J. P. (2006). i2i Trust in videoconferencing. Communications of the ACM, 49(7), 103-107.Retrieved March 27, 2007, from EBSCOhost database (21469769). Bickmore, T. W. (2004). Unspoken rules of spoken interactions. Communications of the ACM, 47(4), 38-44. Retrieved March 27, 2007, from EBSCOhost database (12713418). Fatt, J. P. (1998). Nonverbal communication and business success. Management Research News, 21(4/5), 1-8. Retrieved March 27, 2007, from Proquest database (295500641). Garside, S. G. , & Kle iner, B. H. (1991). Effective one-to-one communication skills. Industrial and Commercial Training, 23(7), 24-27. Retrieved April 12, 2007, From EBSCOhost database (4636901). Graham, G. H. Unruh, J. , & Jennings, P. (1991). The impact of nonverbal communication in organizations: A survey of perceptions. Journal of Business Communication, 28(1), 45-62. Retrieved April 12, 2007, from EBSCOhost database (5765878). Inspirational quotes for business and work: Nonverbal communication. Retrieved March 18, 2007 from http://humanresources. about. com/od/interpersonalcommunicatio1/ Business Advantage 13 a/quotes_nonverb. htm Larson, J. , &Kleiner B. (2004). How to read nonverbal communication in organizations. Management Research News, 27(4/5), 17-22. Retrieved March 27, 2007, fromProquest database (656765051). Mast, M. S. , & Hall, J. A. (2004). Who is the boss and who is not? accuracy of judging status. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 28(3), 145-165. Morand, D. A. (2001). The emotional intell igence of managers: Assessing the construct validity of a nonverbal measure of â€Å"people skills†. Journal of Business and Psychology, 16(1), 21-33. Qiu, L. , & Benbasat, I. (2005). Online consumer trust and live help interfaces: The effects of test-to-speech voice and three-dimensional avatars. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 19(1), 75-94. Retrieved March 7, 2007, from EBSCOhost database (18324428). Remland, M. (1981). Developing leadership skills in nonverbal communication: A situational perspective. Journal of Business Communication, 18(3), 18-29. Retrieved April 12, 2007, from EBSCOhost database (5765673). Wood, J. A. (2006). NLP revisited: nonverbal communications and signals of trustworthiness. Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, 26(2), 197-204. Retrieved March 27, 2007 from EBSCOhost database (6456374). Business Advantage 1 Nonverbal Communication: A Serious Business Advantage Wesley George Nonverbal Communication Dr. Lynn Meade Apr il 27, 2007

Micromanagement: Leadership and Shelly

Answer to Case of â€Å"Micromanagement† Q1: Is George guilty of micromanaging? Why or why not? Answer: No. George hates micromanaging and even disagrees that he is micromanaging. He thinks â€Å"micromanaging† is an excuse that Shelly threw out to dissemble her incapability, for the reason that a successful manager would never micromanage those employees who are capable enough. In additional, he thought Shelly is not so enthusiastic and hungry-to-learn as the beginning, which costs him a lot of time to correct her mistakes. Therefore, George may be angry rather than guilty.Q2: What influence tactics does George use with Shelly and what is her reaction to those tactics? Give an example to support your response. To what degree do his tactics engender trust with Shelly? Answer: George used 1) Rational persuasion, 2) Ingratiation, 3) Pressure. 1) Rational persuasion. After reading the release draft at the first time, George recommended a new title, and Shelly countered tha t she doesn’t agree. To make Shelly align with him, George used the rational persuasion tactic to analyze the situation logically and give evidence, and argued why he consists to use such a strong title.The reaction of Shelly here is she pursed her lips and nodded slightly, which means she wanted to argue, but gave up and accepted his suggestion reluctantly. Without enough participation from Shelly, George made the decision himself, largely harming the trust between them in this situation. 2) Ingratiation. After persuading Shelly to adopt his suggestion, George tried to encourage Shelly a little bit by flattering her: â€Å"Thanks Shel, you are the best†. Ingratiation tactic was used here.However, Shelly didn’t feel any happiness when hearing this, and she no longer like him as before. Again, the trust was failed to engender. 3) Pressure. This tactic was used many times in this case. For example, George demanded Shelly to do two things on the release. George als o said: â€Å"I count on you to get these things right. † Etc. Shelly had different response on the two situations I mentioned above. In the first case, Shelly accepted George’s suggestion reluctantly. In the second case, Shelly made up her mind nd defended herself by explaining why she wrote it in her way but not George’s way. Obviously, trust was failed to engender again since Shelly didn’t meet George’s expectation, and she was unsatisfied with George as well. Q3: Using our knowledge of the â€Å"full-range of leadership† model presented in class, how would you classify the type of leader behavior used by George to manage Shelly? Be specific and provide an example. Answer: To my understanding, George manages Shelly with the transactional leadership. To be specific, he used Management-by-Exception actively.For example, once George found a mistake on the unfinished release draft, he gave feedbacks and corrections immediately. Then he starte d to follow the case, and tried to monitor and correct Shelly’s mistakes and keep things constructive in an active manner. This is exactly as Rich said, â€Å"when George takes an interest, hands-on isn’t the beginning of it. He’s elbow deep in the stuff. † He thought he was providing guidance and necessary feedbacks to Shelly so that she would improve. This type of leadership behavior is a part of transactional leadership.Q4: The Company in this case is not meeting its goals regarding visibility, leads and sales. Shelly is responsible for this functional area of the business. What should George do to lead her more effectively to meet these business objectives? Answer: George can lead Shelly more effectively in several ways. Firstly, according to the Leader-Member Exchange theory, Shelly belongs to the out-group of George’s team. In this group, the relationship between leader and members is cold and impersonal with formal leader authority and less effective influence on members.Under this tense relationship, eventually, members would be tired off to boss by bad performance and less OCBs. To make it better, George can try to give Shelly more freedom, latitude, and responsibility, give her more support, and try to build trust with Shelly. In return, Shelly would probably generate higher performance and satisfaction, and greater dependability, involvement, and eventually, better OCBs would occur as well. By bringing Shelly from out-group to in-group, Shelly could enhance her performance and meet company’s business objectives more effectively.Secondly, George should learn how to apply efficient transactional leadership on Shelly. Besides the MBE active he uses, he should also use contingent reward and punishment. By using this tactic would help Shelly better meet George’s expectations. In this situation, George should communicate with Shelly and give her clear guidance on what would be rewarded and what would be pun ished, and deliver the promised rewards or punishments every time, therefore, trust would be built between George and Shelly.Thirdly, after effective application of transaction leadership, George should go beyond it and try to upgrade to transformational leadership. Transformational leadership requires more trust, credibility and integrity between George and Shelly. George should empower Shelly at a higher level, trust her and respect her decisions. Besides, George should discuss with Shelly about what are their shared goals and values, deliver the company’s short-term and long-term objectives to Shelly, and let she know how her work and efforts would help company to approach the objectives.Moreover, George should move Shelly to address higher needs besides salary, such as bigger growth opportunity, etc. Also, according to Bass’s theory, idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration are some useful methods well implementing transformational leadership. Overall, using transformational leadership would help Shelly to perform beyond George’s expectation, so that their team would finally achieve company’s business objectives more effectively.

With reference to suitable theory and models of group decision making, Essay

With reference to suitable theory and models of group decision making, critically analyse how to performed in the group decision making process used to achieve a solution - Essay Example Knights and Willmott (2007, p.325), using a model identified by Williams et at (1985) present a contrast between the â€Å"ideal† rational decision making process, and those factors that introduce irrationality: There is also the impact of the amount of information available, and who has it. March and Simon (1958 in Knights and Willmott 2007) identified â€Å"bounded rationality† as an issue for decision making. The human mind can only cope with so much information at any one time, otherwise information overload results. What the mind takes notice of, will be determined by the individual, and much of the complexity involved in the decision will be lost. Information asymmetries also affect group decision making processes. Brodbeck et al (2007) note that certain information asymmetries are beneficial for group decision making, while others are not. Information vigilance instructions (withholding decisions until all available information has been discussed) and having sufficient time for the discussion (to allow for sharing of all available information) contribute to effective group decision making (ibid, p.473) while critical norms (which reduce negotiation possibilities) and dual-task structuring (dividing a task in two and requiring all information to be obtained before decisions can be reached) hinder it (ibid, pp.473-474). An individual making a decision only has to consider their own requirements when selecting a solution. Within a group or team, however, there are several viewpoints to consider, and the complexity increases as the size of the group or team does. In a group situation, decision making is affected by what people bring to meetings to discuss the issues. If a similar situation is known to someone, they might bring their knowledge of how that problem was solved (Watson, 2006). Who attends such meetings and who is absent also affects the decision outcome (ibid) as those with relevant knowledge might not be present; if they were

Graphic Design research paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Graphic Design research paper - Essay Example It is, therefore, not possible to use only one approach to all data variants. Effective communication begins with the right choice of the channel. Failure to choose wisely may result to misinterpretation and confusion. Cluttering of the piece also creates distortion and disrupts the smooth decoding of the information one wishes to communicate (Morra-Imas and Rist 478). The design used must accomplish a certain goal. In coming up with the design, the human emotion is taken into consideration. The designer or communicator aims at eliciting an emotion that allows the reader to follow the design and decode the meaning. Once data is available, the communicator lays out the available options for presenting it meaningfully to arrive at the most appropriate design. The design must take into account the target audience in terms of intellectual perception, age or even profession. A suitable design is a result of skillful coordination of elements. Often, how effectively information passes to th e reader depends on the appropriate choice of design. For a successful design, various principles gain consideration. As outlined by Resnick (24), the principles of design include; balance, emphasis, rhythm, unity, and contrast. Balance deals with distribution of design elements in the design. Balance occurs when the distribution is uniform. Two types of balance exist; asymmetrical, and symmetrical. Symmetrical balance occurs as a result of equal arrangement of elements on both sides of a composition. If elements become skewed to one side, an imbalance occurs. The choice of balance depends on the dynamic movement the designer wants to create. Emphasis is the element that gains instant recognition. Its purpose is to attract attention. It forms the most salient feature on the visual presentation. To achieve emphasis, a designer may make the element larger or bolder or code it in a contrasting or brighter color than the adjacent elements. Rhythm presents the way in which the elements i n the design direct the reader’s gaze. A sequence forms when the rhythm creates a reading order. Repeating elements create the impression of rhythm. Unity is another principle. A design achieves unity if the elements relate to each other to create an impression of completeness. Unity is essential in eliciting interest in a reader. Two approaches gain application in achieving unity. These are; grouping, and ground. Grouping happens by placing elements close together such that they appear as part of a group. Ground occurs when a viewer identifies an object distinctly from its base or background. The final principle is contrast. The principle emphasizes visual differences in terms of shape, size, and color of the individual elements. Contrast focuses the attention of the viewer to certain areas of information. Design-lib.com recognizes additional principles to those of Resnick (24), above. Proximity deals with elements arrangement on the page. The intention of proximity is the c reation of unity by placing like elements together. Alignment is the other principle that gains recognition. Alignment deals with the organization of the design, and the expression of the outlook. Lack of alignment gives an impression of sloppiness just as the same way that mixing too many elements. Distortion of alignment is, however, necessary when a designer wants to create an impr

Neal v. Alabama ByProducts Corporation, No.8282, 1990 Del. Ch. Lexis Article

Neal v. Alabama ByProducts Corporation, No.8282, 1990 Del. Ch. Lexis 127 (1990) Court of Chancery of Delaware - Article Example The court held that the Delaware appraisal law's comparable company analysis framework required a discounted cash flow analysis that incorporated the risk factors underlying the corporation's financial structure. As an initial matter, the court stated that the correct valuation method under Delaware law was a discounted future cash flow analysis; the more troubling issues pertained to an analysis of the assumptions regarding the inputs into the discounted future cash flow analysis. The court, consequently, engaged in a detailed analysis of these input assumptions, identifying them as "four principal areas of disagreementthe value of ABC's coal reserves, the value of ABC's investment in the VP-5 mine in Virginia, the amount of ABC's excess working capital and, finally, the EME report on the purported environmental liability at ABC's Tarrant coke plant" (28). The court's first decision was to reduce the corporation's asset value determinations to a net present value. It then changed some of input assumptions and held that the corporate assets ought to have been presented with higher asset values. Both parties stipulated to the use of a capital pricing method in order to select a discount rate; the court, however, ordered that risk factors be explicitly incorporated into this valuation model.

Comparison Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Comparison - Essay Example Deforestation has been an ongoing process on this planet from time immoral. The transformation of forested lands by human activities is one of the major reasons for global environmental change and biodiversity loss. There are several reasons for which forest and its natural resources are exploited and overexploited. Forests are cleared, degraded and fragmented by timber harvest, conversion to agriculture, road-building, human-caused fire, and in numerous other ways. Deforestation is a local problem that can have global consequences and is a treat to human civilization. This paper compares the impact of deforestation in China and Amazon. Economic growth and environmental degradation continues to coexist in China. This has resulted in unsustainable rates of deforestation, high levels of air pollution, and low levels of water quality and quantity (Siciliano, 2006). Deforestation in China has not been a recent issue it had started with the expanding agricultural activities to support human life. Robert Marks in his book entitled Tigers, Rice, Silk, and Silt examines the correlations between economic and environmental changes in the southern imperial Chinese provinces of Guangdong and Guangxi (a region historically known as Lingnan, "South of the Mountains") from 1400 to 1850. Marks in-depth analysis show the impact of population growth on land use patterns, the agro-ecology, and deforestation; the commercialization of agriculture and its implications; the impact of climatic change on agriculture; and the ways in which the human population responded to environmental challenges (Marks, 1998). Earliest history of agricultural activities in Lingnan shows that this region was known for the cultivation of sweet potatoes till the end of seventeenth century. Planting sweet potato required no fertilizers and less labor and could be planted in the hilly, sandy

Promissory Estoppel Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Promissory Estoppel - Essay Example In this view, promissory estoppel is established as a contractual obligation that will in fact harmonize the often-divergent philosophies adhered to by legal scholars. This article looks at the different circumstances when promissory estoppel is used in the English courts and tries to summarize why the doctrine is an important part of contract law. It also tries to explain why the use of promissory estoppel is being contested. This paper maintains that promissory estoppel is still important in contract law and that instead of declining, it is actually evolving. Promissory estoppels has three distinct elements: (1) a clear and definite promise, (2) the promise induced action or forbearance, and (3) injustice can only be avoided with the enforcement of the promise (Boyer 1950: 460). The doctrine of promissory estoppels was first expounded in the case of Central London Property Trust Ltd v High Trees House (Denning 1946). In 1937, High Trees House Ltd. leased a block of flats from Central London Property Trust, with the conditions that the rent is worth  £2,500 and duration is 95 years. But because London was suffering from war bombings at the time, High Trees may not be able to pay out its lease. To help the company sustain its business and since numerous flats were still unrented, the plaintiffs sent a letter to the defendant confirming the reduction of the rent to  £1,250. The defendants continued to pay the reduced rent and by 1945, when all the flats have been rented out, High Trees paid only  £1,250. In September 1945, the plainti ff wrote a letter to the defendant collecting the original amount of  £2,500 for the entire year starting from September 29 to December 25, 1945. The defendants held that the letters passed on between the parties was evidence of modification in the original contract and that it was equally legally binding to the plaintiff company. Lord Denning

Chapter 5 ( second half ) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Chapter 5 ( second half ) - Essay Example In such a way, this brief analysis will mention and seek to quickly note why these questions are of importance as well as seek to underscore the key components of the chapter that were the most interesting with regards to this particular student. Firstly, the authors raise the question of what degree consciousness plays into an understanding of self. It can of course be understood that without a base line level of consciousness that any self actualization whatsoever would be impossible. However, this is not specifically what the authors are referencing. Rather, they seek to raise the question and present information with regards to the degree that individual consciousness helps to define and differentiate understandings and representations of self within broader psychology and society. Tangentially, a further question is raised alongside this with regards to the universality of this consciousness and whether or not it varies, and to what degree, among individuals. Naturally, it can be assumed that consciousness varies precipitously; however, when acquiescing to this, the stakeholder must realize that giving too broad a range to human consciousness weakens to the level and extent to which the interpretation of the â€Å"self † can be universally verified and defined. Yet, by the same token, too weak an understanding of the role that this consciousness plays lends the stakeholder to de-emphasize its overall importance. Furthermore, the chapter references the means by which the â€Å"self† is an ever growing and expansive reality. Ultimately, memory and the psychological interpretation of self is in an ever evolving metamorphosis. As a means of drawing a further level of understanding to this question, the authors present a variety of different psychological scholars that have performed studies and presented theories with regards to the ways in which different stages of human development and memory retention

Organizational culture Essay Example for Free

Organizational culture Essay 1. Discuss several areas in which HR can affect organizational culture positively or negatively. A human resources department plays a significant role in determining the culture of an organization. Human resources cultivate and execute policies and procedures in key areas such as hiring practices, compensation, management relations and employee conduct and behavior. The decisions made by the human resources department can have significant positive and negative implications for the overall cultural quality of the organization. Some of the affected areas include creating awareness, compensation plans, hiring practices and behavior. Company executives may not always have a true understanding of their corporate culture, as they are often far removed from the front lines of the operation. Human resources personnel can provide the benefit of instructing top management as to what the culture is really like. This may lead to positive changes in the corporate culture, it could also lead to changes that meet with resistance from employees, such as when management decides it needs to change or eliminate popular employee programs that it deems wasteful or unproductive. When it comes to compensation, the human resources department typically accepts the responsibility of designing compensation programs for the organization. Depending on how they achieve this, it could have a positive as well as negative impact on organizational culture. For example, an incentive program for salespeople may provide the opportunity for these employees to increase their compensation through greater productivity. Nevertheless, it could also cr eate an environment where the salespeople are competing against each other, leading to the deterioration of teamwork and morale. Human resources also determine the hiring and recruiting practices used by the organization, which has a great impact on the organizational culture. A strong attention to characteristics of job candidates such as education and experience can certify that the company hires employees who are capable of performing the job. In contrast, if there is a lack of focus on characteristics like personality and people skills, the company may end up hiring candidates who will have difficulty being a sole member of the corporate culture. Another key area subsiding under human resources is the conduct of the organizations members. In many organizations, particular larger ones, this involves the development of a code of conduct or ethics that specifics how employees should treat each other and conduct their daily activities. An operative code of conduct that denotes the core values of the organization and is strictly enforced can promote a culture characterized by high levels of ethical behavior. On another note, a weak code or one that is only given lip service by human resources could lead to a culture of dishonesty and distrust. 2. For many individuals, the nature of work and jobs is changing. Describe these changes, some reasons for them, and how they are affecting both HR management and individuals. In reference to our textbook, our world is ever changing when it comes to the workplace. Some of the issues that affect the organization include technology, changing demographics, education and cultural issues. According to the article, â€Å"The Changing Nature of Organizations, Work and Workplace,† In todays world, the structure, content, and process of work have changed. Work is now: * more cognitively complex * more team-based and collaborative * more dependent on social skills * more dependent on technological competence * more time pressured * more mobile and less dependent on geography. In todays world, you will also be working for an organization that is likely to be very different due to competitive pressures and technological breakthroughs. Organizations today are: * leaner and more agile * more focused on identifying value from the customer perspective * more tuned to dynamic competitive requirements and strategy * less hierarchical in structure and decision authority * less likely to provide lifelong careers and job security * continually reorganizing to maintain or gain competitive advantage. 3. Why is it important for HR management to transform from being primarily administrative and operational to becoming a more strategic contributor? According to the PowerPoint, â€Å"Changing Nature of Human Resource Management,† Dr. Zaw states that the typical roles are still apart of human resources managers job descriptions, but the magnitude and percentage of each within the job description has altered. Human resources roles typically include; * Processing and recording keeping * Operational and employee advocate role Human resources strategic roles typically include: * â€Å"having a seat at the table† by contributing to organization results and success * Human resources becomes a strategic partner * When it focuses on creating program that will enrich the organization performance * Engage human resources in strategic planning at the onset * Contribute in the decision making in reference to mergers acquisitions and downsizing * Recreating of organizations and work processes * Accounting and documentation the financial means of human resource activities He then explains the nature of strategic Human Resource Management. 1. The relationship of the organizational and HR strategic strategies a. Cost Leadership includes i. Competition on the basis of low price and high quality of product or service ii. Relies on building employees fit specialized needs iii. Requires a longer human resources planning horizon approach b. Differentiation iv. Competition on the basis of either offering distinctively different products or services v. Relies on hiring needed skills vi. Needs a shorter planning time frame in order to be responsive to dynamic environments 2. Organizational Productivity and Efforts c. Human Resources Productivity vii. Unit labor costs computed by dividing the average cost of workers by their levels of output viii. Low unit labor costs can be a basis for strategy focusing on human resources ix. Productivity and unit labor cost can be determined at the global, country, organizational or individual level. d. Organizational Effectiveness and Financial Contributions of Human Resource x. Linking with financial executive to certify human resources financial contribution to organization’s performance e. Customer Service and Quality Products Linked to Human Resources Strategies xi. High quality productions and services are the outcome of human resources enrichment to the organizational performance f. Organizational Culture and Organizational Effectiveness xii. Organization culture is the values and beliefs shared amongst the organization. 4. What steps can HR professionals take to ensure that mergers and acquisitions are successful? How can HR help during the integration process? In reference to the article, â€Å"What is the Role of Human Resource During a Merger?† , Diane Chinn covers five distinct areas that human resources must focus on during a merger which includes executive coaching, employee communication, culture integration, employee retention and human resources integration. Executive Coaching: Even though human resources have been considered a major staff function, it is shifting more to an essential strategy function. In the process of a merger, human resources should function as executive coaches assisting leaders in understanding the relationship with effective human resources management and merger success. It also gives management insight to the different assumption of issues that may hinder the merger and find different solution for dealing with the issues. Employee Communication: There should be ongoing communication with the employees in reference to the success of the merger. Even though employees do not understand the reason for the merger, they may presume to be against the decision without effective communication. It’s the responsibility of the human resources department to create a communication strategy in reference to each step of the merger process. Cultural Integration: It is the responsibility of human resources to examine and compare the cultures of the two organizations and develop and execute a plan to address cultural issues that could affect the merger such as shared or conflicting values, beliefs and assumptions. Employee Retention: Human resources must ensure that employees have the necessary skills and knowledge needed for the organization remain a part of the merged organization. Human Resources Integration: When the companies merge, there are duplicate systems that must be consolidated or merged. This is especially true in HR where employee management, compensation and benefits, employee training, development and HR information systems must continue to function throughout the merger process. 5. Many companies in the United States have recently put an end to the practice of giving an annual employee Christmas party due to complaints by employees with non-Christian religious backgrounds or spiritual values who claimed the Christmas party was discriminatory employment practice. These dissident employees argued that the employer who celebrated by paying for an employee Christmas party favored Christianity over other religions and belief systems. Do you think non-Christian employees are treated illegally or unethically when the employer decides to give a Christmas party for all the employees? What is the basis of your decision? What would be a reasonable accommodation that an employer could make to satisfy both the Christian and non-Christian employees? Yes, I do feel that non- Christian employees are treated unfairly because employers should be delicate to the religious beliefs of their employees. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination in employment on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin. I feel that no one should be forcing to do something that’s not a part of their beliefs or character. My recommendation would be to have an end of the year celebration where all are able to attend and possible share their cultural experience with everyone through foods, decorations and performances.

Causes and Treatments of Dengue fever

Causes and Treatments of Dengue fever Abstract Dengue fever is caused by positive-stranded RNA virus of the family Flaviviridae; genus  Flavivirus. Dengue virus is transmitted to humans by a mosquito vector Aedes aegypti belonging to genus Aedes of family Culicideae. 50 -100 million peoples are affected by dengue virus . Indian scientists have develop a vaccine for the prevention of the dengue fever. Dengue Virus Genome Contain 10 Viral Protein C,prM,E,NS1.NS2A,NS2B,NS3,NS4A,NS4B,NS5. vector population suppression ,replacement are genetic approaches for control of dengue. In the population suppression vector number is reduced to minimize disease transmission and population replacement of wild-type vector was replaced with genetically modified vector incapable of transmitting the disease. Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) is a particular type and environmentally benign way to suppress the insect population, it is based on collective farming, and radiation-mediated sterilization, and large number of male insects are release. The rel ease of insects carrying a dominant lethal (RIDL) offers a resolution to many of the weaknesses of traditional SIT which has narrow its application in mosquitoes while sustaining the efficacy ecologically friendly and specific types. RNA interference is a mechanism of gene control sequence after transcriptional selectively. RNA viruses Interference (RNAi) pathway is one of the most critical components of the innate immune system of insects that can frustrate a variety of RNA virus such as flavivirus. From all the genetic based method RIDL techniques is most advance. Introduction: Dengue fever is a viral disease transmitted by the rapid development of Aedes aegypti. (McCall and Kittayapong 2006) originally innate to West Africa and spread in the whole world (Antonelli, Clayton et al.) 50 -100 million peoples are affected by dengue virus (Wilke and Marrelli 2012). Dengue virus belongs to the Flaviviridae family. Dengue virus has four major serotypes but antigenically distinct single stranded RNA viruses . The four serotypes of dengue viruses cause disease. The severe form of the disease, dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) and dengue shock syndrome (DHF / DSS), can lead to internal bleeding and even death. (Malavige, Fernando et al. 2004; Olson, Alphey et al. 2006) There is no specific therapeutic drug available for dengue fever. Indian scientists have develop a vaccine for the prevention of the dengue fever animal trials of this vaccine have yielded good results but it is not yet commercialize. By Using yeast pastoris Pichia they have created a non-infectious dengue fever virus like particles made of only large DENV protein envelope to active virus-specific immunity. (Thisyakorn 2013). Dengue virus is 50-nm containing lipid membrane.180 identical copies of envelop protein is present at the surface of viral membrane short transmembrane segment. The virus genome is of about 11000 bases that translates into a single large polyprotein that is cleaved into 3 structural and 7 non-structural genes and short non-coding regions is also present on both the 5 and 3 ends The structural proteins are the capsid (C) protein, the envelope (E) glycoprotein and the membrane (M) protein. (Alcaraz-Estrada, Yocupicio-Monroy et al. 2010) (Nukui, Tajima et al. 2006) The increase of vectors in world is reason of emergence of diseases in new areas. therefore, there is need to control mosquito. Bed nets, space spraying are largely ineffective against this day biting mosquito. Therefore, there is a need to develop useful strategy to overcome dengue fever. Dengue control can be reduced or elimination of the vector population. The population vector can be reduced or eliminated based on genetic methods. There are two strategic objectives to control dengue by genetically modified mosquitoes.(McCall and Kittayapong 2006; Olson, Alphey et al. 2006) vector population suppression population replacement. In the population suppression vector number is reduced to minimize disease transmission and population replacement of wild-type vector was replaced with genetically modified vector incapable of transmitting the disease.(Antonelli, Clayton et al.) suppression techniques and replacement of population are not mutually exclusive and can be implemented in conjunction with other approaches. (Olson, Alphey et al. 2006; Organization 2009) For suppression of the vector population SIT (sterile insect technique) SIT is a specific control environment of the species method in which large numbers of sterile males are release these mate with wild female reduces the reproductive capacity of mosquito. (Coleman and Alphey 2004; Helinski, El-Sayed et al. 2006) SIT mosquito control approaches have been tense and still planned .Reduction mating competitiveness, and sterile female does not reduce the population ,fertility of irradiated males residual is the limitation of the approaches to mosquito control SIT. In SIT male mosquitoes are about liberation are not taking blood meals, and lethality performance so early larval death is density dependent reduction occur. (Yakob, Alphey et al. 2008; de Valdez, Nimmo et al. 2011; Lacroix, McKemey et al. 2012) RIDL (Release of Insects carrying a Dominant Lethal) strategy to reduce these limitations by recombinant DNA technology. In RIDL male n female mosquitoes are genetically modified approaches. (Coleman and Alphey 2004; Atkinson, Su et al. 2007; Phuc, Andreasen et al. 2007) OX513A RIDL bisex is a strain. The males are released to mate with wild females. The offspring of these mating die due to late larvae or pupae. Thus the target population can be reduced. (Wallace 2013) In female transgenic mosquitoes OX3604C that genes are present to conduct flightless female-tetracycline-repressible phenotype. flightless females can not mate with a male. (de Valdez, Nimmo et al. 2011; McGraw and ONeill 2013) And for substituting additional vector population or foreign genes are inserted to prevent the transmission vector of the disease. Foreign gene can be a gene Antipathogen, or a combination of transgenic approaches that will reduce or eliminate the transmission of disease from vectors to human.(Basu and Bhattacharya 2014) Genetic approaches leading to vector population suppression: GMV-based development of Sterile-Insect Technique (SIT): The sterile insect technique (SIT) is a specific method of species and environmentally benign control the insect population that relies on mass rearing and release of sterile insects.(Wilke and Marrelli 2012) These released insects compete for mates with wild females. Wild female pairing to a sterile male has no or fewer children, so that the population tends to decrease. If enough sterile insects are released for a sufficient period, the target population is controlled or even eradicated locally(Wallace 2013). SIT has been used successfully for over 50 years to control the entire area and / or elimination of several important agricultural pests and disease vectors, including the Mediterranean fruit fly, screwworm. (Coleman and Alphey 2004)Although conducted a series of tests in the 1970s, with some success, there is today no SIT programs on large-scale operation against mosquito species. (Yakob, Alphey et al. 2008; Lacroix, McKemey et al. 2012; Mwasunda October, 2012) Ae. aegypti is a, mosquito species fit for mass rearing. This species also appears to be reasonably uniform over large areas, without the problems of sub-species and barriers to mating. SIT has many advantages as compare to traditional strategies: it is species specific and to stay away from The harmful effects of pesticides on non-target species. The mating behavior of male insects is highly efficient as a substitute of relying on Human rights activists. wild insects Density are condensed that’s why it works better (Coleman and Alphey 2004) LIMITATION of SIT: The main problem of SIT is the loss of competitiveness mating for the wild type due to sterilization of insects by irradiation. For mosquitoes, releasing only male is considered essential, since the sterile females bite and can thus transmit the disease, while male mosquitoes do not bite. So SIT including large-scale, gender-based separation . pupal size can constantly give people male-only population for release. A key difficulty for mosquito SIT is sterilization. Irradiation of pupae appear to harm insects; irradiation as adults is less harmful but operationally much harder. Some trials used sterilizing chemicals such as thiotepa, which was effective for sterilization, but led to trace contamination with this mutagenic chemical. Another problem for mosquito SIT relates to the biology of the mosquito population. Unlike agricultural pests against which the main SIT programs are directed at present, mosquito populations can be regulated primarily by density-dependent effects, in which a very fruitful population is maintained at a level stable for limited resource constraints, others problems of SIT is fitness costs and operational difficulty of irradiation.(Coleman and Alphey 2004; Olson, Alphey et al. 2006; Wilke and Marrelli 2012) Release of Insects Carrying a Dominant Lethal Gene: Insects are designed to carry a dominant lethal genetic system can be used to replace the need for radiation sterilization in a similar SIT program. In this RIDL is replaced engineered lethal dominant. At the same time RIDL and SIT, and some or all of the descendants of people die as a result of the release of inheriting one or more dominant lethal mutations, so that the population tends to decline. (Atkinson, Su et al. 2007; Yakob, Alphey et al. 2008; Massonnet-Bruneel, Corre-Catelin et al. 2013) Mechanism: Male mosquitoes have developed genetically modified to contain lethal gene, in order to combat the spread of dengue fever. LA513 is piggyBac transposon-based non-independent from 8.4 kilobytes. Insert LA513 transposon within aeydes mosquitoes by genetic engineering techniques to produce toxins in the larvae of mosquitoes stage under normal condition, and thus cause the death of the larva. Transposon LA513 mainly containing DsRed2 gene that is to engage in the modified identify genetically by red fluorescence due to the expression of that gene. and tTAV gene (tetracycline -repressible transcriptional activator) tTAV gene is under the control of its binding site, titO, and minimal promoter of Drosophila HSP70, and 3 UTR sequence of the fruit fly FS (1) K10. tTAV bind with its binding site titOs and gives a very high level of expression of tTAV which is toxic under normal conditions. In The presence of tetracycline tTAV connect with them. This model does not bind tTAV with titO and do not even lead to the expression of more tTAV therefore this construction gives a very high level expression of tTAV in the absence of tetracycline, but gives low expression in the presence of tetracycline. The high level expression of tTAV may be due to the interaction with the VP16 domain transcription factor that provides a key to the building of this deadly system. (Massonnet-Bruneel, Corre-Catelin et al. 2013) When genetically modified mosquitoes are released in the wild and mate with wild female offspring to inherit this trait lethality. The resulting offspring die before reaching the age of majority and the local mosquito swarms fall.(McGraw and ONeill 2013) Oxitec is a British company is working to find innovative solutions to control insects using biotechnology and genetics in advance (called RIDL) placed Egyptian genetically modified Aedes this product and is named as a OX513A bisex RIDL strain. (Massonnet-Bruneel, Corre-Catelin et al. 2013) Aeydes mosquito, one of the most important carrier of the dengue fever,and decreased by 80% in the 2010 trial of these genetically modified mosquitoes in the Cayman Islands. Using genetically modified male aegypti we can reduce or eliminate the population of mosquitoes that specie, and thus we can control the transmission of dengue virus to humans, which causes dengue fever. Population replacement techniques: Population replacement techniques involve the insertion of additional or foreign genes to prevent the mosquitoes from transmitting the disease. The techniques may include inserting an antipathogen gene, an immune system upregulator, or a combination of transgenic approaches that will ultimately result in the reduction or elimination of disease transmission from mosquito to human. To assess whether a mosquito has reduced disease transmission capability, the virus titer in the experimental transgenic mosquitoes midgut and salivary glands can be measured and compared to a wildtype control. At least three genetic-transformation systems have been described and used successfully in Ae. aegypti to generate GMVs. These transformation systems are based on the Class II TEs Mos1 (Mariner), Hermes and piggyBac . Mos1 and piggyBac are the most commonly used TEs mos1 for generating GMVs. Evidence of rnai mechanism in mosquitoes: List the RNAs strategy Interference with the recurrence of dengue virus can operate Effective in mosquitoes and mosquito cells. The first evidence is recombinant Sindbis viruses having DENV-2-prM sequence was transformed in to in adult female mosquitoes. Sindbis viruses is single-stranded RNA virus. During replication it is convert in to double stranded RNA and intermediary expressing DENV-2 prM that is activate the RNAi mechanism . Combination of DENV-2 and the recombinant SINV having DENV-2-prM sequence slabs DENV replication in mosquitoes. in mosquito cell culture Expression of a dsRNA hairpin structure is a strong Catalyst of the RNAi mechnism. 567 nucleotide of the prM sequence from DENV-2 in a sense orientation and first 290 nt repeated in antisense orientation is made hairpin structure .cloned this into plasmid after transcription DENV-2 specific dsRNA is formed that stop the DENV-2 replication. transfection of C6/36 (Aedes albopictus) with dsRNA of arbovirus genome.these are the evidence which shows that Aedes species have RNAi mechanism resemble to other organisms. RNAi Mechnism : In RNAi mechanism dsRNA is integrate in The cytoplasm of the cell. RNase III enzyme Dicer is responsible to digest dsRNA in a small interfering RNA 21-23 BP (RNAs siRNAs). These double stranded siRNAs having two nucleotides over hangs at both of the 3’ends. Then siRNAs is unwounded in a single stranded by the enzyme complex called the RNA-induced silencing complex,(RISC).one strand act as RISC-targeting co-factor. siRNA having RISC binds with complementary mRNA. cleavage in the middle of the siRNA binding region by RISC is occur .then mRNA Is degrade by natural endogenous mechanisms. RNAi mechanism for dengue control: Sà ¡nchez-Vargas and collegues proved that RNAi paly a important role in the reduction of dengue infection. AAV (adeno-associated virus )siRNA infected the dendritic cells and decrease Dengue infection in human. Mosquito cell line transformed culture (C6 / 36, A. albopictus) by way of plasmid Which contain the inverted sequence of PRM gene of dengue And form dsRNA 290-BP. These transformed cells contain resistance to the dengue virus 2. When these cells are infected with dengue virus -2 viral RAN collection is not occur. These transformed mosquitoes cells Containing all the machines of RNAi. This finding proved that RNAi play a important role in reduction of dengue virus 2. Transposon ,that contain the inverted repeat sequence of prM gene of dengue virus is transformed in mosquito embryo along with carboxypeptidase A Promoter .after the intake of bloodmeal of mosquitoes dsRNA 578-BP is produce. When genetically modified Mosquito Carb 77 stuck With DENV2 having bloodmeal dsRNA is expressed along virus replication. thus preserving the Spreading of the virus from the host to the salivary Glands. RNAi mechanism is accountable for the resistance of DENV2. SiRNA-mediated silencing of receptors and Facility clathrin mediated endocytosis can prevent entry of Dengue virus .The proliferation of HepG2 cells, reducing the Virus. inhibit the dengue fever to develop into serious forms .Specified cellular genes involved in endocytosis operations And the dynamics of the cell structure, the task of infection DENV. SiRNA directing genes linked with clathrin mediated endocytosis. Villegas-Rosales et al. projected three siRNAs that have ability to silence the four DENV serotypes genome By pointing NS4B and NS5 sequences . SiRNA along with RNAi self-processing machinery have a role in the preclusion of unadorned dengue infection. In the development of new therepuetical drugs RNAI can play an imporatn role .

Child Abuse Interventions Within Black African Families

Child Abuse Interventions Within Black African Families Introduction Child abuse within Black African families is an important topic which has been given extensive attention in British social work research and literature to date. However, only a limited research on child abuse in African families have really considered the impact of socio-economic factors on social work interventions since the inception of the Children Act 1989 (England and Wales). Now the question is why is the issue of socio-economic status of West African families living in the UK an important factor to consider in social work intervention in child abuse cases? My aim in addressing this topic is that research works and literature show that Black children and their families are more likely than whites to be subjected to unnecessary child abuse interventions by social work agencies and other professionals (Bernard Gupta, 2006). Recent research show that in all groups, black children were over-represented on the child protection register under the category of poor parenting behaviour leading to all forms of abuse compared to white children (Bernard Gupta, 2006). This may also be seen within the context of the pathologization of Black families which, incorporates the view that black people, their socio-economic lifestyles are inherently problematic and need correcting (Singh 2006, p. 19) and therefore social workers may intervene unnecessarily in such families. Social workers on the contrary may hesitate to intervene with Black families due to being unsure whether certain parenting behaviours resulting from low socio-economic status are really an abuse or not. The potential consequences of such approach for Black families will be either that the children and their families will be unnecessarily investigated under the child protection system and may be subject to court orders, admitted to local authority care, and/or adopted, or that there will not be appropriate intervention by social workers for black children at risk of significant harm, and therefore children may continue to be harmed or even die. This is evident in recent years, where the vulnerability of some black African children in Britain has been highlighted by the tragic deaths of two African children: Victoria Climbià © (Laming, 2003) and the young boy known as Adam, whose torso was found floating in the River Thames (Sale, 2005). Also more recently, media reports of possible ‘ritual abuse of African children in Britain were fuelled by the criminal prosecution in relation to Child ‘B, who was physically abused because it was believed she was a ‘kindoki a victim of witchcraft possessed by the devil (Tendler and Woolcock, 2005; Thompson, 2005). In a broader context Socio-economic status is defined as: ‘a composite measure that typically incorporate economic status, which is measured by income; social status, measured by education; and work status, measured by occupation (Dulton Levine, 1989, p.30). The three indicators are interrelated but not fully overlapping variables. In this context socio-economic status is considered in terms of economic status, defined as low income or poverty. The difficulties for majority of West African Black families who are mainly asylum seekers from poverty-stricken and war-torn countries now living in the UK are not confined only to how they may be viewed by social workers involved in child care but significantly by their child-rearing differences arising from their socio-economic backgrounds (Beranard Gupta 2006). The Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (Department of Health, 2000) based on the ecological approach places a requirement on social workers to consider families histories, cultural and socio-economic status. Therefore the low socio-economic status of many West African families living in the UK is one big challenge for social work professionals working to safeguard and protect these children from abuse from parents responsible for their care. Therefore key information from the literature will be discussed to explore a number of issues that will help social work professionals to deploy the most appropriate and effective method of social work interventions in child abuse cases with West African families in poverty so as to protect these children from all forms of abuse. Moreover, difficulties in social work intervention in child abuse cases may arise, as explained by Korbin (2004), because the process of assessing a child abuse case is complex and parent al behaviours and child outcomes may not be the same in different socio-economic settings. Henceforth, child abuse within West African families can risk reproducing stereotypes of this ethnic minority as ‘deficient, thus fostering pathological viewpoint of African family relationships (Platt, 2005). This raises the question of how can social work practices direct attention to pertinent socio-economic issues framing the experiences of West African children at risk of significant harm, yet not to reproduce ideas of all West African families as deficient. These complex circumstances make social work intervention a major challenge in recent times and therefore, calls for a new perspective in terms of skills, knowledge and conceptual tools to distinguish between the styles of parenting that differ from those of the majority culture, but at the same time safeguarding and protecting children from significant harm. The dissertation has built its theoretical framework on social work theory, policy and practice and will use key conceptual framework from the social-contextual approaches to intervention. The methodology for this work was mainly qualitative and the literature search has been obtained from primary and secondary sources. The dissertation will lay out various issues regarding the social work intervention processes used for West African families with low socio-economic status. The first chapter provides literature on black African children and the child protection system. Chapter two provides a discussion on the increased complexity of social work intervention in child abuse cases involving West African families with low socio-economic status. It also analyse how socio-economic factors cultivate a particular parenting behaviours that impact on social work interventions and thus, bringing West African children living in the UK into the child protection arena. Then chapter three draws on legislations and policies regulating social work practices in the UK. It examines social work practices required to provide competent social work interventions in child abuse cases among West African families and at the same time would not compromise children safety and protection. Chapter four critically analyse the methods of interventions available to social workers to use in effecting positive change in black African community. Finally chapter five discusses the implicat ions of social work intervention made by social work professionals among West African families of low socio-economic status. Chapter one Black African Children And Child Protection Systems The Prevalence Of Black Children On Child Protection Systems There are a number of recent studies on Black families and the child protection system which suggest that these families are disproportionately represented at different levels in the child protection system. Gibbons et al (2005) study looked at the operation of the child protection system in eight local authorities in Britain. A part of their study looked at the racial background of the referred families and they found that Black families were over-represented compared with White families on referrals involving physical injury (58% vs. 42%). Black families were also more often referred for using an implement to inflict the physical injury. The researchers argue that this finding illustrates parenting differences in child-rearing, and the difficulty of deciding what forms of physical punishments are ‘acceptable in Britain. They continued to report that the consequences of the injuries inflicted on the Black children were no more likely to be long-lasting, but what seemed unaccep table for the people who referred these children to social services was the form the punishment took. This research study raises an interesting point about child-rearing and parenting differences. Is it the case that Black families, as part of their culture of child-rearing stemming from their poverty status, use physical punishment more as a means of discipline than White families? A recent study by Ellis (2007) found that some West African parents adopted a harsh disciplinary approach with their children as they believe there is no other alternative way of instilling discipline in their children. But the vast people of the majority ethnic community could use options like keeping playing toys away from the children or not taking the children on a holiday and/or depriving them of visiting their friends as a form of instilling disciplining in the children. Ellis (2007) also noted that these punishments are likely to be meted out in a fairly public situation and, though they may be painful, they are unlikely to get out of hand and go beyond what is culturally acceptable. This would appear to support Gibbon et al (2005) findings that the consequences of the injuries to the Black children in their study were not likely to be long-lasting. Another research study by Gibbon Wilding (2005) looked at three local authorities, two of which had significant populations of Black families. One of their findings indicate that referrals around inadequate supervision of children in the two authorities show that a significant number of children referrals came from Black families with low income status than black families with medium/high income status. It could be argued that families with low income status have to strive hard to make ends means by engaging in two or more menial jobs to financially sustain the family. As a result children are inadequately supervised by the very people who are responsible for their care. Considering this kind of socio-economic circumstances, Gibbon Wilding (2005) question whether such referrals should be considered within the child protection framework, or whether it would be better to provide welfare interventions and services for such families under the children in need Act (The Children Act 1989 , England and Wales, S.17). This finding has a number of possible implications for West African children and their families, it may mean that they will remain in the child protection system for longer whilst the necessary services are identified and implemented; or perhaps that assessments and intervention services are provided but are not socio-economically sensitive, and therefore only serve to disadvantage families further. Furthermore, as part of their study, they found that proportionately more Black children were subject to child abuse investigations than White children. They found that of all the children in their study sample on the register, 60% were Black. A possible reason for this over-representation was that social work professionals working with the families had no or little understanding of the socio-economic backgrounds of these black African families (Barn et al. 2007). The researchers also found that White social workers and practitioners emphasized their lack of socio-economic awareness as a weakness when working with Black families, whilst Black social workers and practitioners argued that poverty and ethnicity were not adequately taken into account due to euro-centric child protection procedures. One might speculate whether the parents/guardians of these children refuse to cooperate with social service agencies or whether these agencies are taking a heavy-handed approach, perhaps have pathological approach towards such families. Further data shows that the number of African children in need in the sample week in 2005 is 8,000 (Department for Education and Skills, 2006a). This figure accounts for 3 per cent of the overall total, which is an over-representation inferring from the 2001 census where African children makes up 1.4 per cent of the population. A number of studies indicate that most families of children in need, regardless of ethnicity, struggle to bring up their children in conditions of poverty (Department of Health, 1995, 2001). Many West African children in need will not be drawn into the child protection system, if they are made to receive voluntary welfare support services. Thoburn et al.s (2005) review of the research into the nature and outcomes of child welfare services for black children concluded that African children are almost twice as likely to be looked after than the white majority children in the population as a whole, which then suggest, that some of these children will be accommoda ted under section 20 of the 1989 Children Act, by virtue of being raised by families of low socio-economic status. Beranard and Gupta (2006) found that in relation to the reasons for African children being involved in the child protection system, no official national data are collected on ethnicity and reasons for referral or registration on the child protection register (Department for Education and Skills, 2006b). Research data paint a complex and often contradictory picture and once again the information is often aggregated with data on other minority ethnic children. Brophy et al.s (2003) study, which separated data on different minority ethnic families, highlights an increase complexity in the cases involving African children and found that many involved ‘multiple concerns and allegations about parental behaviour. Arguably, there are a number of contributory factors which could be perceived as important in understanding the involvement of West African families with social work agencies and the resultant over-representation of their children in public care and in the child protection system. Broadly speaking, these range from poverty and social exclusion, to child abuse and neglect, poor social work assessments and intervention, and overt and covert racism. The Government Policies And Initiatives The Commission for Racial Equalitys submission to the DFES/HM Treasury Joint Policy Review on children and young people identifies a number of shortcomings of some government policy initiatives such as Sure Start (CRE, 2006). As is the case with many other government policy initiatives, it is expected that Sure Start Centres will be responsive to black minority ethnic needs and concerns. The commitment of such policies is questioned when there is ‘no race equality impact assessment of the Childcare Act 2006 and only a brief mention of black ethnic minority families in the ten-year childcare strategy (CRE, 2006, p. 10). Whilst black ethnic monitoring of children in care, in need and on the child protection register now takes place at regional and national levels, there is little evidence that such information is utilized for policy and planning purposes to effect positive change. It is evident that race and welfare policy has been constrained by parochial perspectives which have tended to focus on how to deal with those in the system. For example, the policy and practice debate on ethnicity and substitute family placements diverts attention from preventive services which could help to obviate the admission of minority children into care in the first place. Similarly, preventive methods of intervention with West African families, such as Family Group Conferences, and systemic practice, as well as particular approaches such as kinship care, are less well developed (Broad and Skinner, 2005; Farmer and Moyers, 2005). Chapter Two Poverty, West African Families And Child Proctection Poverty And Child Protection All families and children for whom social work intervention is likely to be needed are also more than most subject to a range of social and economic problems and barriers. One major factor is chronic poverty which is often associated with unemployment or immigration, ethnic minority, or a single parent family. Poverty often goes hand in hand with other disadvantages and obstacles such as poor educational and employment opportunities, poor parenting, and allegations of child abuse cases. Many West African families and children problems are exacerbated by the interaction between socio-economic factors and their individual impairments and family situations. Unemployment levels are very high among West African families, who are also subject to stigma and prejudice on the part of the community. West African families living in the UK without jobs and no access to benefit and/or dependent on benefits find it hard to access credit. Poor children growing up in single-parent families suffer se rious parental disadvantage, which in turn result into social work interventions. Poverty as we all know is not even-handed. The chances of experiencing poverty are far higher with people from West Africa than with white people (Amin Oppenheim 2002). Institutional oppression is suffered by many West African people in many areas including housing ( Amin Oppenheim 2002), employment ( Chakrabarti et al. 2000), welfare state ( Sadiq-Sangster 2001), education and health which not only means that they are more likely to experience poverty and deprivation, but may also make them more susceptible to social work interventions in terms of child protection. Indeed one may expect Black children to be over-represented in child abuse statistics because their families are more open to surveillance as a result of figuring highly among indices of deprivation (Corby 1993, p.69). The relationship between poverty and child abuse has been broadly established (Thobum et al. 1993; Gibbons et al. 2005). Arguments favour the impact of poverty on child abuse shows an increasing number of child protection allegations referred into the system, and second was the proportion of cases leading to social work interventions and/or other forms of services. Numbers entering the system were hard to quantify. Whilst they showed an increase in registrations up to 1991 (Gibbons et al., 1995), no national records had been kept about referrals, and differences in recording practices and interpretation were widespread. Regarding proportional figures, the discussion was on slightly safer ground. A key finding from the 2005 research studies show that a large number of children were entered into the child protection system compared with those who were subject to social welfare procedures. Of a total number of child protection referrals, around 75 per cent were investigated and intervened, 25 per cent were subject to a child protection conference and only 15 per cent had their names placed on the child pr otection register as a result (Gibbons et al., 2005). Consequently, it was argued that the child protection ‘net was picking up too many cases inappropriately. This finding undermines the government aim of keeping children with families and reducing the number of children that enter the child protection register. On the contrast, it is important to consider the effectiveness of the child protection system. Broadly, it seemed to be achieving as much as could be expected in terms of the limited aim of preventing further abuse to identifiable children. There are, however, identifiable shortcomings of the child protection system. Social work interventions appeared to have quite traumatic effects on families (Department of Health, 1995), often generating anxiety and uncertainty for either children or parents, or both (Farmer and Owen, 2005). Poverty And Child Welfare Services Research shows that the poverty experienced by many West African families may be better met through preventative measures rather than child protection ones. Yet despite section 17 of the Children Act 1989, which places a duty on the local authority social workers to provide support for children in need, many social services children and family teams, barely have sufficient resources to meet their duties under child welfare and children looked after. However, unless these issues are tackled, West African families who need support for their children will receive it only when there is an issue of child protection. Furthermore, using socio-economic variables such as poverty as a predictor of high-risk families (Greenland 1997) fails to acknowledge the part prejudice plays for Black people. Consequently, these indicators of child abuse are seen as failings of the individual rather than the product of social inequality (Jones 2004). A number of studies have indicated that most West African families, struggle to bring up their children in conditions of material and emotional adversity (Department of Health, 1995, 2001). For instance West African families cannot take their children on a holiday trip or meet their wishes and wants. Brophy et al.s (2003) study suggests that immigration and asylum issues, combined with financial problems, are likely to be reasons for the increased complexity for social work professionals assessing and intervening child abuse cases involving West African children. The child protection system that exists in Britain will be unfamiliar to many West African families, especially those who recently arrived, as similar state systems do not exist in most West African countries, particularly where socio-economic factors overshadow intra-familial child maltreatment and intervention into child abuse and neglect (Lachman et al., 2002; Pierce and Bozalek, 2004). Brophy et al.s (2003) study conclud es that many black West African parents saw social work assessment and intervention in child welfare cases as a complete anathema and distrust, especially where parents migrate from countries in political turmoil and where there is no existence of child welfare services. There is also concern about the quality of social workers interventions in child abuse cases. For example, it is shown that investigations of alleged child abuse tended to focus on risk assessment rather than assessment leading to social work interventions of the needs of the whole child (Thoburn et al., 2007). In particular, social workers carrying out an investigation might not pick up problems emanating from poverty or social deprivation (Farmer and Owen, 2005). However, at least superficially, social work interventions appear to contrast with section 17 responses, where research reveals high levels of satisfaction amongst parents and children receiving social work services (Colton et al., 1995; Tunstill and Aldg ate, 2000). Thus, if allegations were minor, it was suggested that the costs to families were unacceptably high, and it was by no means clear that interventions, as a social work response, was better or worse than other options. Engaging in social welfare policy addresses low socio-economic status through intervention aimed at promoting social change, while intervention aimed at the poor family or individual addresses poverty at the micro level by helping those in need to develop better coping strategies. The argument that the social work mission of pursuing social change and dealing with poverty cannot be attained by micro practice has been the source of strong and recurrent criticism against the dominance of micro practice in social work although Hugman (2008) questions the truism of this argument (Asquith et al 2005). The relationship between the mission of social work with regard to poverty and the type of social work practised poses a dilemma for social workers. A particular challenge for social work services is how to work to the required standards regarding thresholds for assessment and intervention with West African families with low socio-economic background and to safeguard and promote childrens we lfare (Platt, 2005). Poverty And Parenting Practices The literature suggest that poverty among black West African families affect the life chances of many African children and the capacity of their parents to provide adequate care and this should be considered in social work assessment and interventions involving child abuse cases. The relationship between values and child up bringing patterns illuminates the relationship between socio-economic factors and parenting behaviours (Shor, 2000). Shor (2000) suggests that parents from low social class differ in terms of the values they uphold for their children and this impact on child upbringing. It is also found that there is correlation between black African mothers with low income status using a more authoritarian approach of caring for children than mothers with high income status. Shors (2000) underpin the relationship between values and child-bearing patterns which illuminate the relationship between socio-economic factors and parenting behaviours. He suggests that parents from divers e social class differ in terms of what characteristics they value most for their children and that these differences in value contribute to differences in parenting behaviour. This variation in child-rearing attitudes based on socio-economic variables was underpinned by Shaefer and Edgerton (1995). In order to develop a sensitive knowledge of child abuse, not only across culture but also across socio-economic contexts, it is possible to draw upon knowledge from studies that look at the parenting patterns of black parents with low income. In families it is the children to whom social workers owe the greater duty of care. Children can be clear about what they need. There may be tensions between childrens needs and wishes, parents needs and wishes, the views and wishes of the wider family, of the community, other professionals, and with the requirements of the law, regulation and procedure. Even where the decision is to remove a child from a family the way social workers conduct their business can make a difference. Thus social work has to respond to parental needs- financial and social, for the sake of the children, but may need to abandon them to maintain the primacy of the childs welfare. The consequences of getting the balance wrong in either direction expose both black African children and parents to suffering and pain. Sometimes the nature of the socio-economic issue will demand decisions that appear to undermine that commitment of not putting children at risk of significant harm. Social workers have to take the decision and maintain the commitment. The Government Regulatory Policies And Poverty By the 21st century, there was a growing view that many West African children who were subjects of section 47 investigations were also eligible for services as children in need (section 17 of the 1989 Children Act). Often, such children did not receive these welfare services because of the apparent incident driven focus of child protection services. One way forward in these circumstances was to encourage local authority social work teams to conduct initial assessments, rather than child protection investigations, in borderline cases, with a view to finding less intrusive forms of social work intervention practice that address the wider developmental needs of the child. Procedures supporting such changes were first introduced by local authorities independently, and were subsequently incorporated into government guidance in England, with the expectation that all referrals of children would first be offered an initial assessment except in emergency cases or where it is suspected that a crime has been committed (Department of Health, 1999). Concurrently, a detailed framework was issued regarding the assessment of all children in need (Department of Health, 2000). The now familiar Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families was based on an ecological model of assessment, and included supporting pro formas covering the initial assessment period. Platt, (2000) in his study on refocusing initiative attracted a degree of criticism. For many health and social work professionals, there was concern that serious child protection issues might not receive an adequate response if handled outside child protection procedures (Calder and Hackett, 2003). A key factor here would be whether cases can be switched successfully from family support back into child protection—an issue that has given cause for concern over a number of years (Laming, 2003). Parton (1996) criticized the recommendations of Messages from Research because they ignored the basic socio-economic reality for many families. Furthermore, cu rrent social expectations may support a formal response to allegations of child abuse and neglect. It is thus unreasonable to expect social workers to act alone since to do so runs counter to the dominant view of wider society. The idea that fewer investigations would mean that resources could simply be transferred to family support services is somewhat naive. The resource problems include the provision of social work time, the provision of adequate family support services, and the need to support a period of change and transition. Few would argue that resourcing levels in any of these respects have been adequate (Calder and Hackett, 2003), and the question of resources was sidestepped almost completely by Messages from Research. The difficulties of implementing such changes were highlighted more recently by Cleaver and Walker (2004) in their research on the impact of the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families. The role of the state in these processes was also examined critically by Spratt and Callan (2004). They argued that reductions in numbers of children on the child protection register have been achieved largely as a result of modern governance and measures to promote compliance with performance targets. Whilst these achievements are laudable, they suggest, they may serve to obscure ‘underlying tensions in the relationship between the state and the family. The idea of refocusing has been affected by complex, often competing pressures since the introduction of the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families. Arguably, the death of Victoria Climbià © reinforced a ‘child protection orientation, and may have led, in some areas, to a lowering of the child protection threshold (Laming, 2003). The Laming report, furthermore, draws attention to the professional confusions that arise from the distinctions in practice between sections 17 and 47. In circumstances such as this, the role of the social worker in any changing pattern of provision takes on parti cular importance. Chapter Three Social Work Practices History Of Social Work Practice Social work has its roots in the struggle of society to deal with poverty and the resultant problems. Therefore, social work is intricately linked with the idea of charity work; but must be understood in broader terms. The concept of charity goes back to ancient times, and the practice of providing for the poor has roots in all major world religions (www.globalvision.org. Retrieved on 14/04/2009). The term social work intervention usually describes work undertaken with individuals, families, groups and communities. In this context the term to cover the use of social work knowledge and skills when using it within a social care organisation to facilitate the provision of services and practice consistent with the Codes of Practice and with standards of service and practice, and to promote the social inclusion and life opportunities of people using services. Successful social work includes the capacity to work effectively within organisations and across organisational boundaries. In the vast majority of instances social work intervention is a collective activity not an individual activity whether as social worker employee or an independent social worker. The most common form of methods of social work intervention is Individual or family casework. Here social work is the intervention. It supports the individual or family to identify, and use, their own and their social networks exp erience and expertise as a resource for problems or difficulties may have resulte Child Abuse Interventions Within Black African Families Child Abuse Interventions Within Black African Families Introduction Child abuse within Black African families is an important topic which has been given extensive attention in British social work research and literature to date. However, only a limited research on child abuse in African families have really considered the impact of socio-economic factors on social work interventions since the inception of the Children Act 1989 (England and Wales). Now the question is why is the issue of socio-economic status of West African families living in the UK an important factor to consider in social work intervention in child abuse cases? My aim in addressing this topic is that research works and literature show that Black children and their families are more likely than whites to be subjected to unnecessary child abuse interventions by social work agencies and other professionals (Bernard Gupta, 2006). Recent research show that in all groups, black children were over-represented on the child protection register under the category of poor parenting behaviour leading to all forms of abuse compared to white children (Bernard Gupta, 2006). This may also be seen within the context of the pathologization of Black families which, incorporates the view that black people, their socio-economic lifestyles are inherently problematic and need correcting (Singh 2006, p. 19) and therefore social workers may intervene unnecessarily in such families. Social workers on the contrary may hesitate to intervene with Black families due to being unsure whether certain parenting behaviours resulting from low socio-economic status are really an abuse or not. The potential consequences of such approach for Black families will be either that the children and their families will be unnecessarily investigated under the child protection system and may be subject to court orders, admitted to local authority care, and/or adopted, or that there will not be appropriate intervention by social workers for black children at risk of significant harm, and therefore children may continue to be harmed or even die. This is evident in recent years, where the vulnerability of some black African children in Britain has been highlighted by the tragic deaths of two African children: Victoria Climbià © (Laming, 2003) and the young boy known as Adam, whose torso was found floating in the River Thames (Sale, 2005). Also more recently, media reports of possible ‘ritual abuse of African children in Britain were fuelled by the criminal prosecution in relation to Child ‘B, who was physically abused because it was believed she was a ‘kindoki a victim of witchcraft possessed by the devil (Tendler and Woolcock, 2005; Thompson, 2005). In a broader context Socio-economic status is defined as: ‘a composite measure that typically incorporate economic status, which is measured by income; social status, measured by education; and work status, measured by occupation (Dulton Levine, 1989, p.30). The three indicators are interrelated but not fully overlapping variables. In this context socio-economic status is considered in terms of economic status, defined as low income or poverty. The difficulties for majority of West African Black families who are mainly asylum seekers from poverty-stricken and war-torn countries now living in the UK are not confined only to how they may be viewed by social workers involved in child care but significantly by their child-rearing differences arising from their socio-economic backgrounds (Beranard Gupta 2006). The Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (Department of Health, 2000) based on the ecological approach places a requirement on social workers to consider families histories, cultural and socio-economic status. Therefore the low socio-economic status of many West African families living in the UK is one big challenge for social work professionals working to safeguard and protect these children from abuse from parents responsible for their care. Therefore key information from the literature will be discussed to explore a number of issues that will help social work professionals to deploy the most appropriate and effective method of social work interventions in child abuse cases with West African families in poverty so as to protect these children from all forms of abuse. Moreover, difficulties in social work intervention in child abuse cases may arise, as explained by Korbin (2004), because the process of assessing a child abuse case is complex and parent al behaviours and child outcomes may not be the same in different socio-economic settings. Henceforth, child abuse within West African families can risk reproducing stereotypes of this ethnic minority as ‘deficient, thus fostering pathological viewpoint of African family relationships (Platt, 2005). This raises the question of how can social work practices direct attention to pertinent socio-economic issues framing the experiences of West African children at risk of significant harm, yet not to reproduce ideas of all West African families as deficient. These complex circumstances make social work intervention a major challenge in recent times and therefore, calls for a new perspective in terms of skills, knowledge and conceptual tools to distinguish between the styles of parenting that differ from those of the majority culture, but at the same time safeguarding and protecting children from significant harm. The dissertation has built its theoretical framework on social work theory, policy and practice and will use key conceptual framework from the social-contextual approaches to intervention. The methodology for this work was mainly qualitative and the literature search has been obtained from primary and secondary sources. The dissertation will lay out various issues regarding the social work intervention processes used for West African families with low socio-economic status. The first chapter provides literature on black African children and the child protection system. Chapter two provides a discussion on the increased complexity of social work intervention in child abuse cases involving West African families with low socio-economic status. It also analyse how socio-economic factors cultivate a particular parenting behaviours that impact on social work interventions and thus, bringing West African children living in the UK into the child protection arena. Then chapter three draws on legislations and policies regulating social work practices in the UK. It examines social work practices required to provide competent social work interventions in child abuse cases among West African families and at the same time would not compromise children safety and protection. Chapter four critically analyse the methods of interventions available to social workers to use in effecting positive change in black African community. Finally chapter five discusses the implicat ions of social work intervention made by social work professionals among West African families of low socio-economic status. Chapter one Black African Children And Child Protection Systems The Prevalence Of Black Children On Child Protection Systems There are a number of recent studies on Black families and the child protection system which suggest that these families are disproportionately represented at different levels in the child protection system. Gibbons et al (2005) study looked at the operation of the child protection system in eight local authorities in Britain. A part of their study looked at the racial background of the referred families and they found that Black families were over-represented compared with White families on referrals involving physical injury (58% vs. 42%). Black families were also more often referred for using an implement to inflict the physical injury. The researchers argue that this finding illustrates parenting differences in child-rearing, and the difficulty of deciding what forms of physical punishments are ‘acceptable in Britain. They continued to report that the consequences of the injuries inflicted on the Black children were no more likely to be long-lasting, but what seemed unaccep table for the people who referred these children to social services was the form the punishment took. This research study raises an interesting point about child-rearing and parenting differences. Is it the case that Black families, as part of their culture of child-rearing stemming from their poverty status, use physical punishment more as a means of discipline than White families? A recent study by Ellis (2007) found that some West African parents adopted a harsh disciplinary approach with their children as they believe there is no other alternative way of instilling discipline in their children. But the vast people of the majority ethnic community could use options like keeping playing toys away from the children or not taking the children on a holiday and/or depriving them of visiting their friends as a form of instilling disciplining in the children. Ellis (2007) also noted that these punishments are likely to be meted out in a fairly public situation and, though they may be painful, they are unlikely to get out of hand and go beyond what is culturally acceptable. This would appear to support Gibbon et al (2005) findings that the consequences of the injuries to the Black children in their study were not likely to be long-lasting. Another research study by Gibbon Wilding (2005) looked at three local authorities, two of which had significant populations of Black families. One of their findings indicate that referrals around inadequate supervision of children in the two authorities show that a significant number of children referrals came from Black families with low income status than black families with medium/high income status. It could be argued that families with low income status have to strive hard to make ends means by engaging in two or more menial jobs to financially sustain the family. As a result children are inadequately supervised by the very people who are responsible for their care. Considering this kind of socio-economic circumstances, Gibbon Wilding (2005) question whether such referrals should be considered within the child protection framework, or whether it would be better to provide welfare interventions and services for such families under the children in need Act (The Children Act 1989 , England and Wales, S.17). This finding has a number of possible implications for West African children and their families, it may mean that they will remain in the child protection system for longer whilst the necessary services are identified and implemented; or perhaps that assessments and intervention services are provided but are not socio-economically sensitive, and therefore only serve to disadvantage families further. Furthermore, as part of their study, they found that proportionately more Black children were subject to child abuse investigations than White children. They found that of all the children in their study sample on the register, 60% were Black. A possible reason for this over-representation was that social work professionals working with the families had no or little understanding of the socio-economic backgrounds of these black African families (Barn et al. 2007). The researchers also found that White social workers and practitioners emphasized their lack of socio-economic awareness as a weakness when working with Black families, whilst Black social workers and practitioners argued that poverty and ethnicity were not adequately taken into account due to euro-centric child protection procedures. One might speculate whether the parents/guardians of these children refuse to cooperate with social service agencies or whether these agencies are taking a heavy-handed approach, perhaps have pathological approach towards such families. Further data shows that the number of African children in need in the sample week in 2005 is 8,000 (Department for Education and Skills, 2006a). This figure accounts for 3 per cent of the overall total, which is an over-representation inferring from the 2001 census where African children makes up 1.4 per cent of the population. A number of studies indicate that most families of children in need, regardless of ethnicity, struggle to bring up their children in conditions of poverty (Department of Health, 1995, 2001). Many West African children in need will not be drawn into the child protection system, if they are made to receive voluntary welfare support services. Thoburn et al.s (2005) review of the research into the nature and outcomes of child welfare services for black children concluded that African children are almost twice as likely to be looked after than the white majority children in the population as a whole, which then suggest, that some of these children will be accommoda ted under section 20 of the 1989 Children Act, by virtue of being raised by families of low socio-economic status. Beranard and Gupta (2006) found that in relation to the reasons for African children being involved in the child protection system, no official national data are collected on ethnicity and reasons for referral or registration on the child protection register (Department for Education and Skills, 2006b). Research data paint a complex and often contradictory picture and once again the information is often aggregated with data on other minority ethnic children. Brophy et al.s (2003) study, which separated data on different minority ethnic families, highlights an increase complexity in the cases involving African children and found that many involved ‘multiple concerns and allegations about parental behaviour. Arguably, there are a number of contributory factors which could be perceived as important in understanding the involvement of West African families with social work agencies and the resultant over-representation of their children in public care and in the child protection system. Broadly speaking, these range from poverty and social exclusion, to child abuse and neglect, poor social work assessments and intervention, and overt and covert racism. The Government Policies And Initiatives The Commission for Racial Equalitys submission to the DFES/HM Treasury Joint Policy Review on children and young people identifies a number of shortcomings of some government policy initiatives such as Sure Start (CRE, 2006). As is the case with many other government policy initiatives, it is expected that Sure Start Centres will be responsive to black minority ethnic needs and concerns. The commitment of such policies is questioned when there is ‘no race equality impact assessment of the Childcare Act 2006 and only a brief mention of black ethnic minority families in the ten-year childcare strategy (CRE, 2006, p. 10). Whilst black ethnic monitoring of children in care, in need and on the child protection register now takes place at regional and national levels, there is little evidence that such information is utilized for policy and planning purposes to effect positive change. It is evident that race and welfare policy has been constrained by parochial perspectives which have tended to focus on how to deal with those in the system. For example, the policy and practice debate on ethnicity and substitute family placements diverts attention from preventive services which could help to obviate the admission of minority children into care in the first place. Similarly, preventive methods of intervention with West African families, such as Family Group Conferences, and systemic practice, as well as particular approaches such as kinship care, are less well developed (Broad and Skinner, 2005; Farmer and Moyers, 2005). Chapter Two Poverty, West African Families And Child Proctection Poverty And Child Protection All families and children for whom social work intervention is likely to be needed are also more than most subject to a range of social and economic problems and barriers. One major factor is chronic poverty which is often associated with unemployment or immigration, ethnic minority, or a single parent family. Poverty often goes hand in hand with other disadvantages and obstacles such as poor educational and employment opportunities, poor parenting, and allegations of child abuse cases. Many West African families and children problems are exacerbated by the interaction between socio-economic factors and their individual impairments and family situations. Unemployment levels are very high among West African families, who are also subject to stigma and prejudice on the part of the community. West African families living in the UK without jobs and no access to benefit and/or dependent on benefits find it hard to access credit. Poor children growing up in single-parent families suffer se rious parental disadvantage, which in turn result into social work interventions. Poverty as we all know is not even-handed. The chances of experiencing poverty are far higher with people from West Africa than with white people (Amin Oppenheim 2002). Institutional oppression is suffered by many West African people in many areas including housing ( Amin Oppenheim 2002), employment ( Chakrabarti et al. 2000), welfare state ( Sadiq-Sangster 2001), education and health which not only means that they are more likely to experience poverty and deprivation, but may also make them more susceptible to social work interventions in terms of child protection. Indeed one may expect Black children to be over-represented in child abuse statistics because their families are more open to surveillance as a result of figuring highly among indices of deprivation (Corby 1993, p.69). The relationship between poverty and child abuse has been broadly established (Thobum et al. 1993; Gibbons et al. 2005). Arguments favour the impact of poverty on child abuse shows an increasing number of child protection allegations referred into the system, and second was the proportion of cases leading to social work interventions and/or other forms of services. Numbers entering the system were hard to quantify. Whilst they showed an increase in registrations up to 1991 (Gibbons et al., 1995), no national records had been kept about referrals, and differences in recording practices and interpretation were widespread. Regarding proportional figures, the discussion was on slightly safer ground. A key finding from the 2005 research studies show that a large number of children were entered into the child protection system compared with those who were subject to social welfare procedures. Of a total number of child protection referrals, around 75 per cent were investigated and intervened, 25 per cent were subject to a child protection conference and only 15 per cent had their names placed on the child pr otection register as a result (Gibbons et al., 2005). Consequently, it was argued that the child protection ‘net was picking up too many cases inappropriately. This finding undermines the government aim of keeping children with families and reducing the number of children that enter the child protection register. On the contrast, it is important to consider the effectiveness of the child protection system. Broadly, it seemed to be achieving as much as could be expected in terms of the limited aim of preventing further abuse to identifiable children. There are, however, identifiable shortcomings of the child protection system. Social work interventions appeared to have quite traumatic effects on families (Department of Health, 1995), often generating anxiety and uncertainty for either children or parents, or both (Farmer and Owen, 2005). Poverty And Child Welfare Services Research shows that the poverty experienced by many West African families may be better met through preventative measures rather than child protection ones. Yet despite section 17 of the Children Act 1989, which places a duty on the local authority social workers to provide support for children in need, many social services children and family teams, barely have sufficient resources to meet their duties under child welfare and children looked after. However, unless these issues are tackled, West African families who need support for their children will receive it only when there is an issue of child protection. Furthermore, using socio-economic variables such as poverty as a predictor of high-risk families (Greenland 1997) fails to acknowledge the part prejudice plays for Black people. Consequently, these indicators of child abuse are seen as failings of the individual rather than the product of social inequality (Jones 2004). A number of studies have indicated that most West African families, struggle to bring up their children in conditions of material and emotional adversity (Department of Health, 1995, 2001). For instance West African families cannot take their children on a holiday trip or meet their wishes and wants. Brophy et al.s (2003) study suggests that immigration and asylum issues, combined with financial problems, are likely to be reasons for the increased complexity for social work professionals assessing and intervening child abuse cases involving West African children. The child protection system that exists in Britain will be unfamiliar to many West African families, especially those who recently arrived, as similar state systems do not exist in most West African countries, particularly where socio-economic factors overshadow intra-familial child maltreatment and intervention into child abuse and neglect (Lachman et al., 2002; Pierce and Bozalek, 2004). Brophy et al.s (2003) study conclud es that many black West African parents saw social work assessment and intervention in child welfare cases as a complete anathema and distrust, especially where parents migrate from countries in political turmoil and where there is no existence of child welfare services. There is also concern about the quality of social workers interventions in child abuse cases. For example, it is shown that investigations of alleged child abuse tended to focus on risk assessment rather than assessment leading to social work interventions of the needs of the whole child (Thoburn et al., 2007). In particular, social workers carrying out an investigation might not pick up problems emanating from poverty or social deprivation (Farmer and Owen, 2005). However, at least superficially, social work interventions appear to contrast with section 17 responses, where research reveals high levels of satisfaction amongst parents and children receiving social work services (Colton et al., 1995; Tunstill and Aldg ate, 2000). Thus, if allegations were minor, it was suggested that the costs to families were unacceptably high, and it was by no means clear that interventions, as a social work response, was better or worse than other options. Engaging in social welfare policy addresses low socio-economic status through intervention aimed at promoting social change, while intervention aimed at the poor family or individual addresses poverty at the micro level by helping those in need to develop better coping strategies. The argument that the social work mission of pursuing social change and dealing with poverty cannot be attained by micro practice has been the source of strong and recurrent criticism against the dominance of micro practice in social work although Hugman (2008) questions the truism of this argument (Asquith et al 2005). The relationship between the mission of social work with regard to poverty and the type of social work practised poses a dilemma for social workers. A particular challenge for social work services is how to work to the required standards regarding thresholds for assessment and intervention with West African families with low socio-economic background and to safeguard and promote childrens we lfare (Platt, 2005). Poverty And Parenting Practices The literature suggest that poverty among black West African families affect the life chances of many African children and the capacity of their parents to provide adequate care and this should be considered in social work assessment and interventions involving child abuse cases. The relationship between values and child up bringing patterns illuminates the relationship between socio-economic factors and parenting behaviours (Shor, 2000). Shor (2000) suggests that parents from low social class differ in terms of the values they uphold for their children and this impact on child upbringing. It is also found that there is correlation between black African mothers with low income status using a more authoritarian approach of caring for children than mothers with high income status. Shors (2000) underpin the relationship between values and child-bearing patterns which illuminate the relationship between socio-economic factors and parenting behaviours. He suggests that parents from divers e social class differ in terms of what characteristics they value most for their children and that these differences in value contribute to differences in parenting behaviour. This variation in child-rearing attitudes based on socio-economic variables was underpinned by Shaefer and Edgerton (1995). In order to develop a sensitive knowledge of child abuse, not only across culture but also across socio-economic contexts, it is possible to draw upon knowledge from studies that look at the parenting patterns of black parents with low income. In families it is the children to whom social workers owe the greater duty of care. Children can be clear about what they need. There may be tensions between childrens needs and wishes, parents needs and wishes, the views and wishes of the wider family, of the community, other professionals, and with the requirements of the law, regulation and procedure. Even where the decision is to remove a child from a family the way social workers conduct their business can make a difference. Thus social work has to respond to parental needs- financial and social, for the sake of the children, but may need to abandon them to maintain the primacy of the childs welfare. The consequences of getting the balance wrong in either direction expose both black African children and parents to suffering and pain. Sometimes the nature of the socio-economic issue will demand decisions that appear to undermine that commitment of not putting children at risk of significant harm. Social workers have to take the decision and maintain the commitment. The Government Regulatory Policies And Poverty By the 21st century, there was a growing view that many West African children who were subjects of section 47 investigations were also eligible for services as children in need (section 17 of the 1989 Children Act). Often, such children did not receive these welfare services because of the apparent incident driven focus of child protection services. One way forward in these circumstances was to encourage local authority social work teams to conduct initial assessments, rather than child protection investigations, in borderline cases, with a view to finding less intrusive forms of social work intervention practice that address the wider developmental needs of the child. Procedures supporting such changes were first introduced by local authorities independently, and were subsequently incorporated into government guidance in England, with the expectation that all referrals of children would first be offered an initial assessment except in emergency cases or where it is suspected that a crime has been committed (Department of Health, 1999). Concurrently, a detailed framework was issued regarding the assessment of all children in need (Department of Health, 2000). The now familiar Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families was based on an ecological model of assessment, and included supporting pro formas covering the initial assessment period. Platt, (2000) in his study on refocusing initiative attracted a degree of criticism. For many health and social work professionals, there was concern that serious child protection issues might not receive an adequate response if handled outside child protection procedures (Calder and Hackett, 2003). A key factor here would be whether cases can be switched successfully from family support back into child protection—an issue that has given cause for concern over a number of years (Laming, 2003). Parton (1996) criticized the recommendations of Messages from Research because they ignored the basic socio-economic reality for many families. Furthermore, cu rrent social expectations may support a formal response to allegations of child abuse and neglect. It is thus unreasonable to expect social workers to act alone since to do so runs counter to the dominant view of wider society. The idea that fewer investigations would mean that resources could simply be transferred to family support services is somewhat naive. The resource problems include the provision of social work time, the provision of adequate family support services, and the need to support a period of change and transition. Few would argue that resourcing levels in any of these respects have been adequate (Calder and Hackett, 2003), and the question of resources was sidestepped almost completely by Messages from Research. The difficulties of implementing such changes were highlighted more recently by Cleaver and Walker (2004) in their research on the impact of the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families. The role of the state in these processes was also examined critically by Spratt and Callan (2004). They argued that reductions in numbers of children on the child protection register have been achieved largely as a result of modern governance and measures to promote compliance with performance targets. Whilst these achievements are laudable, they suggest, they may serve to obscure ‘underlying tensions in the relationship between the state and the family. The idea of refocusing has been affected by complex, often competing pressures since the introduction of the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families. Arguably, the death of Victoria Climbià © reinforced a ‘child protection orientation, and may have led, in some areas, to a lowering of the child protection threshold (Laming, 2003). The Laming report, furthermore, draws attention to the professional confusions that arise from the distinctions in practice between sections 17 and 47. In circumstances such as this, the role of the social worker in any changing pattern of provision takes on parti cular importance. Chapter Three Social Work Practices History Of Social Work Practice Social work has its roots in the struggle of society to deal with poverty and the resultant problems. Therefore, social work is intricately linked with the idea of charity work; but must be understood in broader terms. The concept of charity goes back to ancient times, and the practice of providing for the poor has roots in all major world religions (www.globalvision.org. Retrieved on 14/04/2009). The term social work intervention usually describes work undertaken with individuals, families, groups and communities. In this context the term to cover the use of social work knowledge and skills when using it within a social care organisation to facilitate the provision of services and practice consistent with the Codes of Practice and with standards of service and practice, and to promote the social inclusion and life opportunities of people using services. Successful social work includes the capacity to work effectively within organisations and across organisational boundaries. In the vast majority of instances social work intervention is a collective activity not an individual activity whether as social worker employee or an independent social worker. The most common form of methods of social work intervention is Individual or family casework. Here social work is the intervention. It supports the individual or family to identify, and use, their own and their social networks exp erience and expertise as a resource for problems or difficulties may have resulte